Showing posts with label Steam Boiler Design. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Steam Boiler Design. Show all posts

Steam Drum Capacity


Steam drum capacity is one thing to be well designed. Provided the flow abilities of consistent water-steam splitting up devices, the steam drum capacity of boiler is measured to support the quantity of separators required to get the biggest likely boiler load (highest rate of steam flow). Steam drum capacity is sized also to support the variations in water level which take place for the duration of the estimated changes in load. The length and diameter of steam drum, with incremental ways are modified to fulfill the area specifications at lowest price.

A review control to design steam drum if steam is too much carried under directly into downcomer. Delivering steam into downcomer or can be called as carry under isn't desired for the reason that it decreases the obtainable thermal pumping pressure through decreasing density at topside of downcomer. Carry under operation is a functionality of actual design, drum level, performance of separator and working pressure.

Empirical modification aspects for certain designs are designed and also applied within the circulation computations to take into account the steam going into downcomer. The steam is finally fully condensed right after the steam moves a brief distance towards downcomer. On the other hand, the common density at topside of downcomer remains lower when compared with thermal balance will signify.

A quick raise in steam need will likely be followed by a short-term pressure drop until eventually the rate of firing or combustion process could be adequately improved. In the course of this phase, the amount of steam all the way through steam boiler is enhanced along with the producing swell increases the level of water inside steam drum.

The increase is determined by the amount and also size changes in load as well as the rate where the feedwater sources and heat could be adjusted to satisfy the load need. Steam drum is developed to supply the required amount, in collaboration together with firing and controls devices, to avoid too much water go up towards steam separators. That, therefore, avoids water carried over into superheater piping. For that reason, it is important to design steam drum capacity.

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Boiler Rating


Boiler rating is a rating that shows performance and productivity of boiler. There are 3 forms unit to show boiler rating which are generally applied; Boiler horsepower (BOHP), kW rating, and ‘From and at’ rating.

  1. Boiler horsepower (BoHP)
Boiler horsepower (BoHP) is one of unit to show boiler rating, BoHP is commonly applied exclusively in the New Zealand, Australia, and USA. At New Zealand, BoHP rating is formula of area of heat transfer and applies to heating surface of 17 ft2 in the boiler, seeing that shown in the following equation:

Boiler Horsepower (BoHP) = area of heat transfer (ft2) x (1/17)

Boiler horsepower (BoHP) isn't normally acknowledged conversion component of 1 horsepower = 746 Watts and also the frequently recognized 550 ft lbf/s doesn't use.

  1. kW rating
Several boiler makers can express boiler rating in form of kW. kW rating isn't the rate of evaporation and also this rating be more responsive to similar aspect of ‘from and at’ rating. To determine the exact evaporation by way of mass, it can be earliest important to recognize the steam pressure which is generated and the feedwater temperature, to be able to determine the amount of energy is put in to each one kg of water. Boiler rating with kW form can be calculated by using following equation:

Boiler rating (kW) = Steam output (kg/h) / ((3600 s/h) / (added energy in kJ/kg))

  1. “From and at” rating
This rating is commonly applied as a datum simply by steam boiler makers to provide boiler rating that indicates the quantity of steam in kilo gram per hour (kg/h) that boiler may generate at atmospheric pressure, “from and at 100°C”. Each one kilogram of steam could subsequently has obtained heat 2.257 kJ.

Steam boiler is frequently run by using temperature of feedwater  under 100°C. Therefore boiler is needed to provide enthalpy to deliver water upward to boiling stage. A lot of steam boilers operate at pressures greater compared to atmospheric pressure, due to the fact that steam at an increased pressure provides extra heat energy compared to steam at temperature of 100°C. The following requires more enthalpy of water in saturation temperature. When the pressure of steam boiler increases, the temperature of saturation will be enhanced, requiring extremely enthalpy previous to feedwater is delivered around boiling temperature.

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Boiler Peak Rating


Peak rating is definitely the actual evaporation which could be suffered by steam boiler for a specific time of, such as, two or four hour in a day, to fulfill a greater need for power plant, industries or process. The following below some attentions related to peak rating:

  • Operating steam boiler continually on peak rating is better prevented simply because the lifetime of steam boiler is influenced as a result of continual increased temperatures in superheater, reheater and furnace areas, leading to erosion, fouling and slagging troubles in addition to a greater loss.
  • Nevertheless, when length of time of peak rating is increased, the steam boiler needs to be resized surely having the productivity optimized at normal continuous rating or maximum continuous rating and its components measured to match the peak rating. Usually within power plant the peak responsibility is additionally to fulfill the condition of VWO (valve wide open of turbine), which can be commonly 5–10% of the maximum continuous rating flow of turbine. This can be maximum flow if most of control valves in chest of steam turbine inlet tend to be totally open. This situation can provide extra power by using a new steam turbine and also could protect against probable power loss in the next years because of aging reasons.
  • Commonly the peak work will not exceed or meet 110% maximum continuous rating (MCR) and four hours in one day, and also the peak rating is generally achieved by generating utilization of design and examination block borders of steam boiler without needing to oversize its components.
  • Peak work is usually attained at lowered efficiency, when the exit temperature output of gas from steam boiler will be far more compared to that at maximum continuous rating condition (when the flow of fuel is increased), resulting in greater losses in stack.
The principle of peak rating doesn't implement to Heat Recovery Steam generator (HRSG). Gas turbine generator rating is provided at its ideal conditions and Gas turbine generator is not possibly run at higher temperature as compared to design loads with regard to the concern of serious shortening of hot component's lifetime.

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Normal Continuous Rating (NCR)


Normal continuous rating (NCR) is a little bit lower compared to maximum continuous rating (MCR) and shows the situation in which steam boiler will be run quite often; and of course it really is the situation in which the performance requires to be optimized. Normal continuous rating (NCR) is commonly at 90% maximum continuous rating (MCR). In the practical application of power plant, NCR typically refers to MCR of steam turbine and MCR to valve wide open affliction or more.
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Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR)


Maximum continuous rating (MCR) is the capability of steam boiler to produce and provide the stated quantity of steam continually and easily with no all kinds of deficit or unwanted effects (for example overloading, slagging or overheating) upon the principal steam boiler and its components.

It can be, actually, the minimal guaranteed evaporation within described circumstances. By using the examination of block margins obtainable throughout the different auxiliaries, it is doable to attain 8–10% extra steam coming from the steam boiler if it really is new. Certainly, with getting older, a substantive percentage of the following overcapacity could be lost, generally when components wear out and the surfaces break down. When the fuels that the steam boiler is made, tend not to degrade and the steam boiler doesn't experience any severe damages such as explosions, and the operation and maintenance routines are beneficial, a properly designed steam boiler by using good margins complies with the maximum continuous rating (MCR) possibly by the end of the designed lifetime of commonly 30 (thirty) years.

During the time of assortment and purchasing of steam boiler in case the several situations on fuel and load are obviously designed, including additional capacity to prevent a doable derating eventually is wasteful and unwanted. When the producing extra-large boiler will run at under the rated condition, the operating costs are most gonna be increased, besides the primary cost.
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Oil Fired Boiler

Oil fired boiler is a boiler which uses oil as its fuel to perform combustion process. Oil fired boiler consist of several important parts such as burner nozzles, air compressor, atomizing air system, oil piping, oil metering valve system, flame ignition and the others. As in gas fired boiler, when NOx (nitrogen oxide) control is aspect of firing system, generally there could be small NOx burner controls or staged firing. Appropriate maintenance and procedure based on suggestions of boiler maker is important to an effective and risk-free firing process.

The following below are several particular things that is related to oil fired boiler which must get special consideration:
  • Monitor pressure control valves and oil pumps so these equipment can distribute oil to burner nozzles on the proper pressures. Perform pressure check every day.
  • Circulation of oil must run readily. Any decrease in temperature of oil or outside should be inspected to make sure circulation of oil is running well.
  • Flame variation of oil fired boiler must be supervised and proper temperature of oil must be maintained. Variations in temperature of oil are commonly effect of malfunctioning temperature control or unclean heater devices. Check with heater and pump suppliers for proper advice.
  • Clear burner nozzles are important in order to get an effective flame. Accumulation of soot will certainly occurs in oil fired boiler. Any damage in flame qualities is indicator that nozzles must be flushed.
  • Similar with gas fired boiler, oil fired boiler which has more than one burner must has proper pattern to use these burners to get optimum efficiency in which load conditions do not need the application of all burners continually.
Oil firing needs atomizing system that is commonly steam or air. Variations in atomizing pressure can easily result in sooting, that can sooner or later cause reduction of boiler efficiency. The reason behind that pressure loss may generally be caused by unclean oil nozzle or problem in air compressor or regulator.

Variations in pressure instantly influence the capability of oil to appropriately burn and atomize totally. The effects consist of accumulation of oil and soot in boiler furnace, fuel-rich firing factors can make high cost in operating boiler and decrease boiler efficiency.

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Gas Fired Boiler

Gas fired boiler is a boiler which uses gas as its fuel. Gas fired boiler consists of some important components such as flame ignition, gas metering system, air compressor, air piping, gas piping, burner nozzles, and the others. Combustion process of gas fired boiler should be maintained and operated properly to produce efficient combustion result.

The following below are several certain things which are related to gas fired boiler that must obtain specific consideration:
  • The pressure of gas is important to effective combustion and good burner procedure. Abnormal pressure might result in excessive amount of carbon dioxide (CO), fuel-rich combustion, and high accumulation of soot which may decrease the efficiency of steam boiler. The troubles in gas pressure might be started from imbalances supply of gas pressure, unclean regulator of gas pressure or boiler regulator may be is not working. 
  • Burner of gas fired boiler having NOx settings must has damper to adjust combustion process and the circulation of flue gas to comply with the signs from control room. The remainder of NOx and burner settings must be modified for highest NOx control at optimum performance and lowest unstable organic substance or carbon dioxide production.
  • The burner operations procedure must be managed for maximum efficiency based on recommendations of boiler maker. Flame recognition units must be controlled to let lowest excessive air operation correctly.
  • The air/fuel ratio must be controlled to get the best effective operation of gas fired boiler. Adjustments could be various for base-loaded boilers as in contrast to a boiler which employs load swings through a warming up or practice load. Boilers owning swinging loads may possibly not be ready to run on decreased excess air control.
  • The procedure of air handle damper must be tested to ensure that it’s reacting correctly to indicators from control room.
  • The nozzle of gas pressure must be proper.
  • The functioning of control valve in gas flow setting must be tested to ensure that it is reacting to indicators from control room.
  • Gas fired boiler which has more than one burner must has design setting operation of burner for highest efficiency in which load conditions do not need utilization of all burners forever but may be design system need some of them to be used.

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Boiler Heat Recovery


The greatest heat loss of steam boiler is done by the hot flue gases in the stack. Recovery of several of heat losses can be performed by economizer which utilizes flue gas to heat boiler feedwater or utilize flue gases to heat combustion air via air heater. These methods of boiler heat recovery will certainly increase the overall thermal efficiency and efficiency of steam boiler.

Generally for every 7°C rise in temperature of feedwater, steam boiler can reduce fuel consumption about 1%. For every 20°C rise in temperature of combustion air through air heater, fuel consumption of boiler can be reduced by 1%.
Figure 1: Boundary Layer of Gas Side
(Source: The Boiler Operator Handbook - Graham & Trotmant)

An economizer is an extendable of steam boiler and it is operated at similar pressure, therefore is susceptible to similar protection needs as steam boiler. Moreover circulation of water temperature coming into the economizer should not be very low possibly inducing too much sulfur corrosion, or very high so vapor bubbles form in the tubes. As common guideline temperature of water must be over 55°C and not greater than 20°C below saturation temperature of steam at working pressure of steam boiler that could be attained through steam tables. So as to observe these temps, thermometers are needed at the inlet and outlet of the economizer.

Many heating tools could be developed or designed to utilize preheated combustion air. A tubular air heater in the flue gas flow recuperates heat. Metal air heaters are susceptible to sulfur corrosion if temperatures of flue gas decrease very low. In big installations, stainless steel can be installed to defeat corrosion.

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Simple Vertical Boiler


Simple vertical boiler is a boiler which is constructed vertically and produces steam at low pressure and in small quantities. Therefore simple vertical boiler is used in low power generation or in places where space is limited. Construction of this boiler type is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Simple Vertical Boiler

Simple vertical boiler consists of wall cylinder which surrounding the cylindrical fire box. Cylindrical fire box is tapped on it where steam flow to the surface. At the bottom of fire box there is grate. The fire box is equipped with two or more slope transverse pipe F, F.  The slope aims to raise heating surface in addition also to improve water circulation.

Hand hole is made cleaning deposit purpose. A man hole is created above to so people can enter the boiler for cleaning. A ash hole is made on the bottom of boiler for disposal of ash buildup. The space between boiler wall and fire box is filled with water to be heated.

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ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (ASME BPV Code) is a code that is published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers which is used as standard for design, repair and maintenance, inspect, manufacture, and construct boiler and pressure vessel. ASME code is first published in 1914, since 1954 it had been renewed in every 3 years and also ASME will issue addenda every year. The latest edition now is ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code 2010 edition. This code had been accepted internationally.


ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (ASME BPV Code) consists of 12 sections. Each section consists of parts, divisions, and subsections. The cost to buy complete ASME BPV code is approximately $6500 more. The following below are sections of ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code:
a)      ASME BPV Code Section 12 - Rules for the Construction & Continued Service of Transport Tanks
b)      ASME BPV Code Section 11 - Rules for In-service Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components
c)      ASME BPV Code Section 10 - Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels
d)      ASME BPV Code Section 9 - Welding and Brazing Qualifications
e)      ASME BPV Code Section 8 - Pressure Vessels. This code consist 3 divisions as follow:
-         ASME BPV Code Section 8 Division 1
-         ASME BPV Code Section 8 Division 2 - Alternative Rules
-         ASME BPV Code Section 8 Division 3 - Alternative Rules for Construction of High Pressure Vessels

f)      ASME BPV Code Section 7 - Recommended Guidelines for the Care of Power Boilers
g)      ASME BPV Code Section 6 - Recommended Rules for the Care and Operation of Heating Boilers
h)      ASME BPV Code Section 5 - Nondestructive testing
i)      ASME BPV Code Section 4 - Rules for Construction of Heating Boilers
j)      ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Rules for Construction of Nuclear Power Plant Components
-         ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Subsection NCA — General Requirements for Division 1 and Division 2
-         ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 consists of:
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Subsection NB — Class 1 Components
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Subsection NC — Class 2 Components
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Subsection ND — Class 3 Components
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Subsection NE — Class MC Components
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Subsection NF — Supports
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Subsection NG — Core Support Structures
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Subsection NH — Class 1 Components in Elevated Temperature Service
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Appendices
-         ASME BPV Code Section 3 Division 2 — Code for Concrete Containments
-         ASME BPV Code Section 3 Division 3 — Containments for Transportation and Storage of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High Level Radioactive Material and Waste

-         ASME BPV Code Section 2 Part A — Ferrous Material Specifications
-         ASME BPV Code Section 2 Part B — Nonferrous Material Specifications
-         ASME BPV Code Section 2 Part C — Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Metals
-         ASME BPV Code Section 2 Part D — Properties (Customary)
-         ASME BPV Code Section 2 Part D — Properties (Metric)



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Boiler Efficiency Calculation


According to PTC (Power Test Code) 1.4 ASME (American Standard of Mechanical Engineering) there are two methods for boiler efficiency calculation namely: input output method and heat loss method. The following below is further explanation of the boiler efficiency calculation methods:
  1. Input-output method
η = Output / Input

Output is defined as the heat that is absorbed by working fluid. Input is defined as the chemical heat of fuel plus the heat that is added to working fluid, air, gas and other fluid circuit in which the fluid circuit across thin layer.

  1. Heat Loss Method
Heat loss method is the method that is used to calculate the percentage amount of heat which is not useful. This method is very effective used in an attempt to find potential savings of boiler with heat balance.

There are several factors act as the source of heat loss combustion. These factors will be used to calculate boiler efficiency based on heat loss method. The source of heat loss can be seen as following below:
Heat loss due to dry flue gas is the heat loss which is contained in dry flue gas such as CO2, O2 and N2. These gases are one of causes of heat loss in combustion process. The high temperature of flue gas coming out from boiler affect amount of heat loss.

The weight and heat loss of dry flue gas of combustion of coal can be calculated as following formula:
Wdfg = mCO2 + mSO2 + mO2 + mN2
Eloss dfg = Wdfg x Cp x (To - Ts)

Where:
Wdfg          = weight of dry flue gas (kg/kg coal)
Eloss dfg        = heat loss in dry flue gas (kJ/kg)
To              = temperature of dry flue gas coming out from boiler
Ts              = temperature of surrounding air

There are two sources of steam contained in flue gas. It is steam from burning H2 and steam from fuel moisture coupled with steam present in combustion air.

-          The calculation formula of heat due to steam from burning H2 is:
WH2O = 9 x H2
Eloss H2 = WH2O x (hg - hf)

Where:
WH2O = weight of water content (kg/kg coal)
Eloss-H2O = amount of heat loss due to steam from burning process of hydrogen (kJ/kg)
Hg = enthalpy of steam at the temperature of flue gas coming out from boiler
hf = enthalpy of water at surrounding air temperature.

hg and hf can be seen in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Saturated Water and Saturated Steam
-          Steam from fuel moisture and combustion air
Calculation of heat loss due to steam from fuel moisture and combustion air: can be seen in the following formula:
Eloss-H2O = (WH2O-coal + WH2O-air) x (Hg - Hf)

Where:
Eloss-H2O = amount of heat loss due to steam from fuel moisture and combustion air

  1. Heat loss due to unburned carbon
The calculation is assumed level of excess air is provided about more 20% and combustion that occurs only produces unburned carbon about 1% of carbon content in fuel. Calculation of heat loss due to unburned carbon can be seen as following formula:

Eloss-UC = WUC x HHVcarbon

Where:
WUC = weight of unburned carbon (kg/kg)
HHVcarbon = highest heating value (kJ/kg)
Eloss-UC = amount of heat loss due to unburned carbon

  1. Heat loss due to radiation
The amount of heat loss due to radiation depends on the rate of heat which is released in combustion furnace. Based on the ABMA chart (American Boiler Manufacturers Association), at big heat release rate, the amount of heat loss due to radiation tends to constant. The heat radiation that occurs is estimated 0.2% calorific value of fuel.

  1. Uncountable heat loss
There are several sources that can cause heat loss in combustion, where the value is too complicated to be calculated certainly. This heat loss is called as uncountable heat loss. The amount of uncountable heat loss is about 0.3% of calorific value of fuel.
  1. Heat losses in the boiler if the heat is used only for warming fluid only.

Total heat loss that may occur in boiler system can be calculated as formula below, so boiler efficiency calculation can be determined.

Eloss total = Eloss-dfg + Eloss-H2 + Eloss-H2O + Eloss-UC + Eradiation + Euncountable
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Steam Formation Process in Boiler

Since steam formation process in boiler depends on pressure, so steam formation process is performed at constant pressure. If 1 kg of water at 20C is heated in a closed vessel with constant pressure (1 atm), then during the first heating process, temperature of boiling reach 100C, steam begins to be formed. In this case, this steam is called wet steam (saturated liquid), because the steam still mix with grains of water.

If all steam including grains of water which is mixed in wet steam is heated again, it will get saturated steam (saturated vapor). Saturated steam is condition where the steam form is entirely pure steam, there is not mixture. The amount of heat that required converting 1 kg of boiling water into saturated steam at constant pressure is called latent heat. When the heating is continued so the temperature of saturated steam will rises and this steam is called as superheated steam / superheated vapor.

At steam formation process in boiler, air and fuel are distributed into furnace to perform combustion process. Combustion gases will pass through evaporator, superheater, air heater, and finally to be discharged into atmosphere through chimney / stack. While the feedwater, after doing heating process in deaerator, then to be distributed into evaporator and then saturated steam is heated further in a pressure part which is called superheater and finally heat superheated steam can be obtained.
Figure 1: Graphic T-S on Steam Formation in Boiler

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Boiler Type D

Boiler type D is the boiler which has arrangement of drum, tubes and pipe with form D. Boiler type D has two drums; steam drum and water drum. Water flows from steam drum through convection bank tubes which connect steam drum and water drum (or can be called as mud drum). Convection wall tubes receive heat transfer from the combustion process by convection. Thus convection wall tubes also act as economizer.

Baffle is used in the convection wall tubes to arrange flue gas flow longer than without baffle, so the heat will be received by tubes higher and finally increase efficiency of boiler. After flow through convection wall tubes, the temperature of water will be higher. Water from water drum or mud drum will flow through water wall tubes to perform evaporation process. Water wall tubes receive heat transfer by radiation and convection. For more detail configuration see Figure 1 below.
Figure 1: Boiler Type D

In water wall tubes, water is heated and converted into steam then steam will be distributed to steam drum. Separation process between steam and water occur in steam drum. Steam can be separated from water by use cyclone, baffle or centrifugal mechanism.

In boiler type D, placement of burner is depending on fuel type. For liquid fuel such as oil, burner will be located on the wall of boiler. For solid fuel such as coal, combustion process will carry out in the floor of boiler with horizontal position or make an angle with floor and the fuel is distributed by conveyor.
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Modification of Rankine Cycle

Modification of Rankine cycle aims to improve the efficiency of the cycle, in this case made the extraction of steam from turbine generator to heat feedwater, so the steam boiler can work easily and reduce requirement of fuel. Practically, turbine generator with high initial pressure usually uses number of extraction 5 until 7 extraction. Number of extraction can be added 8 – 9 extraction if turbine generator has parameter of critical hot steam. For steam turbine which has middle pressure, the number of extraction is usually limited only 1 until 4.

One of modification of Rankine cycle can be seen in the figure below:
Figure 1: Rankine Cycle with 1 Extraction

Steam heat up from boiler is distributed to turbine generator, after going through several levels of turbine blades, some of steam are extracted to the deaerator, while the remaining steam goes to condenser and to be condensed there. Furthermore, water from condenser is also pumped to deaerator. Steam from turbine will mix with water from condenser in the deaerator. From deaerator process, water will be supplied into steam boiler to be converted into steam then will be distributed again into turbine generator.

The purpose of steam is extracted to deaerator is discharge gases that are not condensed, so the heating process in the boiler will be effective, prevent corrosion and increase efficiency. To simplify thermodynamic cycle analysis, the processes mentioned above is simplified in the form of following diagram:
Figure 2: Diagram T-S of Rankine Cycle with 1 Extraction

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Separation Process in Steam Drum

Steam drum is a collector and separator equipment for water and steam from water wall tubes. According to separation concept of water and steam in steam drum, separation process can be classified in three types such as natural gravity driven separation, baffle assisted primary separation and mechanical primary separation.

-          Natural Gravity Driven Separation
In the process of natural separation, mixture of water and steam is separated due to differences in density. Steam has less density than water so steam will go to the top of drum and water will fall to bottom of drum. This separation process depends on the location out of steam and water, the speed and position of the incoming steam, the quality of steam and so on. But the natural separation process has some disadvantages such as Figure 1 below:
Figure 1: Natural Gravity Driven Separation in Steam Drum
In the figure shown, if the steam entered through the bottom of drum, the steam will mix with boiler water so reduce temperature of steam and increase temperature of water which will be distributed to downcomer pipe or convection wall tubes. If velocity of steam is low, steam will not be able to pass water and its quality will be reduced while if the velocity of steam is too high, some steams will go to downcomer pipe so the water level in steam drum will rise, thus disturbing the accuracy of water level gauges on drum.

If steam is entered to the center of drum, the water level in steam drum will be uneven and some steams will enter to downcomer pipe. If the steam is entered from the top of drum, steam will affect to water level in steam drum.

-          Baffle Assisted Separation
In this separation process, a mixture of steam and water coming out of the water wall tubes will be separated by baffle with redirecting the flow into baffle, so water separate from steam and the flow of steam will be directed so it does not mix with water in the steam drum as shown in Figure 2 below.
Figure 2: Baffle Assisted Separation in Steam Drum
-          Mechanical Primary Separation
The working principal of mechanical primary separation is use separation process due to centrifugal force and radial force by passing the mixture of steam and water in cyclone shaped equipment. Steam will be separated from water because centrifugal force and radial force occur when the mixture flow this cyclone. The figure below is sample of cyclone equipment such as conical cyclone, curved arm cyclone and horizontal cyclone. 
Figure 3: Type of Cyclone in Steam Drum

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Thermodynamic Analysis in Steam Boiler

Rankine cycle is the theoretical cycle which includes basic working principle of steam power plant. Rankine cycle is different from air cycle in term of working fluid that had changed its phase during cycle especially at evaporation and condensation time. Therefore, the fluids that work in Rankine cycle are water and steam.

Rankine cycle ideally does not involve some internal irreversibility problems. Irreversibility is resulting from friction fluid, throttling, and mixing. Irreversibility can also occur in steam turbine generator and pump and will lead to heat loss and pressure loss in heat exchanger equipment, pipes, bends, and valves.
Figure: Simple Diagram of Rankine Cycle

Figure 2: Simple TS Diagram of Rankine Cycle
In the figure 1: Simple diagram of rankine cycle above, feedwater to be supplied into steam boiler is heated either with feedwater heater or deaerator. At condition 2, water is compressed by boiler feed pump into steam drum or boiler. In the boiler, water is converted into steam at condition 3. Steam is heated again until to be superheated steam which has available temperature and pressure for steam turbine generator. Superheated steam at condition 3 is distributed and expanded isentropic to turbine generator and perform rotation shaft which is connected to electric generator.

During on the turbine generator process, temperature and pressure of steam will decrease and reach point 4 where steam is distributed to condenser. Steam which enter the condenser is saturated steam and has high quality. Condenser is one of heat exchanger equipment where steam is condensed there and its temperature is decreased by cooling medium in the condenser.
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Mechanism of Economizer

Economizer is one of steam boiler’s equipment which is used to heat feedwater before it is supplied into steam drum. Economizer is the heat exchanger equipment to increase boiler efficiency by absorbing heat recovery of flue gases. The lower temperature of flue gas out from stack, the heat loss will be less and the fuel which is needed to convert water into steam will be also less in certain circumstances. So it can be said that economizer can save the fuel efficiently.  Economizer will make temperature of feedwater higher, so steam boiler can produce steam easily.

The heating process of water in the economizer is like an heat exchanger, water is distributed inside tubes and flue gas outside tubes. The hot flue gas outside tubes flow and making contact with outside surface tube, so the heat transfer occur between hot flue gas and surface metal tubes by convection. Water inside tubes receives heat transfer from metal tubes, so temperature of water is higher than before enter economizer. Contact of flue gas flow to feedwater flow is regular and perpendicular. It is controlled and regulated by setting the flue gas flow.

Furthermore, feedwater that has been heated in economizer is sent to steam drum through connecting pipes. In the steam drum, feedwater will be boiler water and be heated again in water wall tubes to be saturated steam and superheater will make it as superheated steam.

The advantages of using economizer as initial heater are as follow:
-         The metal wall of steam drum will not easy to be contracted, shrivel and broken because the incoming water is not cold condition so the cost maintenance will be smaller.
-         Increase steam boiler efficiency and decrease heat loss.
-         Save the fuel needed to perform combustion process
-         The size of furnace can be smaller because the requirement heat surface is less than without using economizer.
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General Thermal Design Steps

Thermal design of steam boiler is the process to design furnace, heat transfer surface, control steam and water temperature, and select suitable burner or without burner method. Design furnace is calculation process to reach the best size and configuration of furnace to perform combustion completely. Furnace can be designed based on some parameters; wall construction, pressure, heat transfer, waste heat recovery, fuel and firing methods.


After design furnace, the next step to design thermal in steam boiler is calculate heat transfer surface in wall tubes, superheater, reheater, economizer, and air heater. The optimum heat transfer is the objective of this step to determine the requirement a number of tubes needed for the listed pressure parts above.

After design furnace and heat transfer surface, the next important step is control water and steam temperature. Control water temperature is used in economizer while steam temperature is performed in steam outlet temperature in superheater and reheater. Control steam temperature is responsible by desuperheater or attemperator.

Then design burner equipment for selected fuel (gas, oil or pulverized coal) and design without burner if steam boiler use stoker firing is the other necessary step to do thermal design process.
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Maximum Allowable Working Pressure Calculation

The maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) of a steam boiler is an absolute restriction of pressure within psig unit for a steam boiler is allowed to run. The ASME BPV Code (American Society of Mechanical Engineers Boiler and Pressure Vessel) says that absolutely no steam boiler should be run at a pressure above the MAWP with the exception of the safety valve is operated to discharge excessive pressure. Steam boiler has some technical terms that be generally used. One of them is MAWP (Maximum Allowable Working Pressure) which means that all of working pressure at the pressure part shall not exceed MAWP. MAWP on the header or drum can be calculated based on the equation below:

MAWP = (t x E x TS) / (R x SF)

Abbreviation of the equation above is:

MAWP            = Maximum Allowable Working Pressure in the drum or header.
E                      = Joint efficiency of welding in the drum or header
t                       = Thickness of header or drum
TS                   = Tensile strength of the material, can be looked at ASME BPV Section II D
SF                   = Design safety factor, the value which is commonly used is five
R                     = Inside radius of header or drum either steam drum or water drum 
READ MORE - Maximum Allowable Working Pressure Calculation

Construction of Water Wall Tubes

Evaporation phase occurs in water wall tubes. Evaporation is the process to convert water into steam. Therefore water wall tubes should be designed and constructed to provide high heat absorption, minimum excess air level and highest boiler efficiency. Construction of water wall tubes should be also constructed to prevent air leakage into steam boiler, eliminate amount of heat losses and permit high heat release and combustion rate in the furnace.

Construction of water wall tubes must provide high quality of the supporting component such as tubes, casing, refractory, lagging, tile, fin, and so on. Best construction will reduce heat loss and maintenance. Construction of water wall tubes can be classified into four types such as:
Figure 1: Tube and Tile Water Wall
Source: See Reference

1. Tube and Tile Water Wall
At the first development of steam boiler, the designer use this type because of limitation of factory or workshop capability to make tubes are rolled into header, water drum or steam drum, so the spacing between tubes is not designed well practically. The effect of this condition is the furnace can not give enough heat transfer surface (see figure 1)
Figure 2: Tangent Tube Water Wall
Source: See Reference

2. Tangent Tube Water Wall
Tangent tube water wall type is similar with tube and tile water wall type but the amount of heat transfer is higher than tube and tile water wall because of higher amount of tubes in this type. But the problem is same with tube and tile water wall type, it is the limitation to give protection in the refractory because it is directly contacted with burner or combustion process (see figure 2).
Figure 3: Studded Tube Water Wall
Source: See Reference

3. Studded Tube Water Wall
This type is continuous development from the above type. The advantage of this type is can give higher efficiency because the construction of studded tube water wall protects refractory effectively. If the corrosion attack the lagging and tubes, so leakage will occurs when flue gas flow through the water wall(see figure 3).
Figure 4: Membrane or Fin Tube Water Wall
Source: See Reference

4. Membrane or Fin Tube Water Wall
Membrane or fin tube water wall is now best design and construction because this type can give more protection in the insulation and give highest efficiency and heat transfer surface (see figure 4).

Reference: Book – Central Boiler Plants – Department of The Army
READ MORE - Construction of Water Wall Tubes